The Covenanters were the staunch supporters of Presbyterianism, the radicals of their day, who followed to a varying degree the very strict rules of John Calvin in Europe, John Knox and Andrew Melville in Scotland. Although having the external appearance of cohesiveness there were nevertheless internal contentions which reflected their belief that the congregation should be free to manage its own affairs according to their particular wants and needs. This gave rise to a range of reaction to the changes brought about by the Reformation in Scotland which varied from a staid and resigned acceptance to vehement and vociferous opposition with break-away pastors and congregations.

So far as the general populace was concerned, they do not appear to have been much concerned with the mechanics and management by Presbyteries and whether or not there was a General Assembly until about 1625 when Charles I came to the throne. But from then on resentment of his policies and increased taxation of the burgesses filtered down to all levels who hitherto had been mainly concerned with their day-to-day existence. There were also periods when the Kirk took a firmer hold on society such as with a growth of Puritanism and the Presbyterianism of Andrew Melville.

By the Book of Discipline produced by John Knox in 1560, the Kirk was the focus for the Presbyterians in which the elected senior members - the Elders, and the minister held great sway.

It was through the "Kirk Session" - the local church court, that the day to day life of the congregation was overseen. Conceptually, the Kirk session was responsible at local level for matters of conscience and religion but in practice ranged across practically everything. Amidst the turmoil the Presbyterian way sought to bring social discipline and extended to drunkenness, excesses of all kinds whether drink or style of dress, fornication, oppression of the poor such as excessive taxation; deception in matters of buying and selling; and lewd behaviour.

The Presbyterian way also looked to helping "the deserving poor" - the victims of old age and misfortune; the sick, the elderly the widow and the fatherless but was strongly opposed to helping the idle and beggars . With this social conscience came the ambitious proposal for a national education scheme which would educate the young and provide a teacher in every church. Free education for the poor and the general requirement of education would in time be reflected in the relative literacy of emigrants and the ethos that a good education is important.

There was not a total movement to Presbyteriansism overnight, and isolated pockets of Catholicism or unacceptable practices lingered on especially in the Highlands and amongst the nobility. Another group outside the compass of the Kirk was the able bodied vagrants, tinkers, travelling musicians and the like who owed loyalty to no one. Otherwise in the Lowlands of Scotland the people generally became regular church goers and adherents to the rule of the Kirk. In some cases there were pious burgesses and lairds whose sons entered the ministry. This involvement of the burgesses, who were often the local magistrates, enabled an early attack on moral delinquents, absentees from church and disrespectful behaviour.

The main offence heard by the Kirk session seems to have been adultery and fornication. The penalty for adultery was to stand dressed in sackcloth, bare headed and bare feet at the Kirk door then on the stool of repentance in front of the congregation for perhaps six months or longer. Sometimes the punishment included fines and whipping. Few resisted as under a law of 1581 the adulterer who refused the Kirk's punishment could be put to death.

Fornication and lewd behaviour, prostitution etc. was often punished by the men forced to make public penance and the women by ducking in the foulest water available and banishment from the town. Misbehaviour in the countryside was often not detected until pregnancy was obvious when much effort was put into identifying the father and compelling marriage. There was too, several weeks of doing penance.

In the period 1574 to 1612 Puritanism and the zealous Presbyterianism of Andrew Melville gained a foothold that punished a wide range of alleged excesses. This included attacks on Christmas and traditional holidays such as Midsummer Eve. Pilgrimages, dancing, carol singing, merrymaking at weddings, and wakes; and failing to work on Christmas Day were all subject of condemnation. In 1579 a law was passed banning Sunday travel, bodily recreation and drinking.

The rules were relaxed for a while, but a second and more intense phase of Puritanism appeared after 1638 with a renewed vigour that was subsequently endorsed by Oliver Cromwell. In 1656 the ultimate law was passed that forbade frequenting taverns, dance, listening to profane music, wash, brew ale or bake bread, to travel or conduct any business on a Sunday. This, for example, led to punishment of children for playing on a Sunday, and a public warning about carrying water, sweeping the house or clearing ashes from the fire place. In Glasgow there were paid spies to report lapses by the congregation.

So far as schooling was concerned, there was already a system of education and three universities in Scotland before the Covenanters but this was available to those who could afford it, or depended on ministers who also acted as schoolmaster in the Parish. Money was the inherent problem and it was not until 1616 that an Act was passed commanding that every parish should have a school if circumstances allowed and 1646 before laws made the heritors liable to pay for them.

In the 17th century school started at the age of five and meant to continue for five years before the child might pass to a higher school or university depending on ability. The peasant child though might leave by age eight to help the family by work, particularly during the harvest. The school day often started at 6.00 am in summer and lasted between eight and twelve hours with breaks of an hour for breakfast and lunch.. The teaching varied with the ability of the school master but always focussed on "godliness and good manners". Everyone learned to read and write and many schools taught Latin to the more able student. In the burgh schools they taught arithmetic. Compulsory attendance at church was common and the children would be required to discuss the sermon and its meaning on the Monday.

The Restoration of Charles II saw some easing of the rules but this lasted only to about 1690 when the General Assembly made a determined attempt to return to stringent controls. However, over time the repressive rules were adhered to less and less and were only kept by the Seceding churches that had broken away from the Church of Scotland. In the South of Scotland strict observance of the Sabbath continued well into the 18th century but the Highlands remained outside as did the beggars and vagabonds.

Overall the ideals postulated by Knox failed but there were the indelible marks of the Kirk which helped create a pious Protestant country and set new moral standards. By 1780 Scotland had developed an educational system in advance of anything in Europe at the time with consequent impact on its culture and the important ability to help maximise the talents of its people. Some might say that the long affair with Presbyterianism also gave rise to the dour, serious minded Scottish character. What it clearly did do was to create a respect for sobriety and industry and inculcate the people with positive attitudes and sense of purpose.

Meet the Author, Brian Orr, Researcher with The Guild of One Name Studies

Back to The Covenanters, Main Page

Part One: The Covenanters: Who Were They?
Part Two : The Kirk and its Impact on the People
Part Three : Tales of the Covenanters
Part Four : What's in a Name?
Part Five : The Sanquhar Declaration
Part Six : Covenanter Ships: The Eaglewing, The Crown and Henry & Francis
Part Seven : Female Covenanters: Execution by Drowning
Part Eight : Covenanter Prisons: Bass Rock and Dunnattor Castle
Part Nine : Greyfriars Kirk and the National Covenant
Part Ten : Battle of Rullion Green
Part Eleven : Rev. James Renwick, Martyr
Part Twelve : Presbyterians in Ireland
Part Thirteen: The Final Word on the Solway Martyrs
Part Fourteen: The Margaret Wilson Statue
Part Fifteen: After the National Covenant